The road not taken. An integration theoretical model of reading disability
L. Spear Swerling and R. J. Sternberg. Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 27, No. 2, February 1994, pp. 91-103.

Introduction

In this article the authors provide a great source for teachers, offering a model for reading that has clear implications for intervention from the early stages of reading through to strategic reading. It is a model that is built on the assumption that verbal processes are central to the reading process, in particular phonological awareness during the early stages, and that difficulties occur because students stray from the 'path' that leads to the development of proficient reading.

How did the authors derive their model?

In looking at the 'big picture' of reading development the authors argue that it is necessary to reconcile the apparently irreconcilable expression in the vast number of reading studies (in two ways). These are:

(a) Attention to the methodological soundness of the various research findings, and

1. The langue of Ehri's model (1991, 1992) is used to label the various stages that students attain in becoming highly proficient readers. However, the work of other researchers such as Stanovich, Chall, LaBerge and Samuels, was influential.

   What are the stages of learning in this model?

   The first stage of reading is described as the Visual-cue Word Recognition Stage. Here words are recognised by their distinctive features, for example, whether a word is long, short, distinctive in shape.

   At the next stage of reading identified by Ehri as the Phonetic-cue Word Recognition Stage, students have some understanding of how letters map onto sounds. While this understanding is incomplete the achievement is significant as it assumes students have developed some degree of phonological awareness and, most critically, insight into the nature of the alphabetic principle. Without these learnings students remain completely reliant on visual cues to identify words. If this is the case, both word recognition and comprehension will be impaired.

   The third stage is termed Controlled Word Recognition. To reach this point, students must have acquired considerable orthographic knowledge, for example, an ability to perceive and remember that letter strings such as -ock appear in a number of words. Decoding may still require a lot of effort, however, and it is only when Automatic Word Recognition is attained that reading becomes more fluent and comprehension of text is achieved more easily as fewer mental resources are occupied in recognising words. At the fifth stage called Strategic Reading students are able to use their developing metacognitive skills, an increased knowledge base and better developed linguistic skills (vocabulary and sentence structures) to undertake the learning of strategies necessary to comprehend the variety of texts that students become exposed to from around Year 4. In fact, it appears to Chall that the change in task demands accelerates the need to learn new skills and make fresh insights.

   The authors examine each of these stages and explore what happens to students once they divert from the path to reading proficiency. It is noted that this may happen more than once and it is likely that students who have struggled at an earlier stage may carry an ever increasing baggage of failure leading to reduced motivation. Instruction appropriate to the majority of students in a year level, for example, strategic reading, may be inappropriate to a particular student's stage of development. It is also likely that reduced motivation will lead to reduced practice of reading which Anderson (1985) defined as being one of the critical factors in reading success.

   What are the pedagogical implications of the model?

   In examining the educational implications of their model and for those students who divert from the 'path', the authors make the following recommendations:

2. Early recognition is important to overcome the likely problem of reduced motivation and therefore an increased likelihood of failure. A variety of service delivery models needs to be considered.
3. Mainstream reading curricula need to place a high emphasis on decoding in Years 1 and 2; and even the proficient readers according to researchers may well benefit from such instruction. Teachers need to be aware that 'a failure to develop decoding skills on schedule is an ominous sign'.
4. The patterns of development described need to be considered in devising appropriate interventions for students experiencing difficulties. For example, non-automatic readers will need lots of practice in reading comparatively easy reading material.
5. Reading programs need to be balanced so that while fluent decoding is encouraged, the teaching of comprehension skills needs to be promoted. 'A combination of whole language techniques with a strong decoding program seems especially appropriate for many youngsters with reading disability.' In particular the making of links between reading and writing as discussed by Clay and others appears to be an efficacious practice.

Conclusion

In summary, it is recommended that teachers and teachers in training study this article carefully and examine their educational practices in the light of it. Few researchers offer such a comprehensive blueprint for informing the pedagogical choices that need to be made by those working with students who have become caught in the mire of reading failure.